SHORT NOTES FOR LAST TIME REVISION

 SHORT NOTES FOR LAST TIME REVISION

● Pyrolite is a synthetic pyroxene-olivine material found in the Upper mantle

having a composition of Peridotite and basalt . (Basalt:Peridotite=1:3).

● Uraninite (pitchblende), monazite, sphene, apatite, and baddelyeite are suitable minerals for U-Pb dating.

● Zircon is the most suitable mineral for U-Pb dating because it retains U, Th,

and Pb and is widely distributed in various rocks.

● The ionic radius of Zr+4 is 0.87A°, U+4 is 1.05A°, and Th+4 is 1.10A°.

● Pb+2 is excluded from zircon because of its large ionic radius (1.32A°) and

lower charge.

● Zircon contains very little Pb at its formation, resulting in a high U/Pb and

Th/Pb ratio, making it a sensitive geochronometer.

● Zircon has the highest closure temperature (~1000°C).

● Sunspots are dark patches on the Sun's surface, representing regions of low

temperature and high magnetic fields.

● The Sun’s Corona is visible during a Total Solar Eclipse.

● The Photosphere is the first outer shell of the Sun.

● The Chromosphere is the second outer shell of the Sun.

● H and He are the most abundant elements in the solar system, with an H/He

ratio of 12.5. H and He are the most abundant elements because they were formed in the Big Bang.

● The abundance of the first 50 elements decreases exponentially with increasing atomic number (Z). The exponential decrease in the abundance of the first 50 elements reflects the decreased productivity of He capture processes.

● The abundance of elements after the first 50 does not vary significantly with

increasing Z.

● Li, Be, and B have anomalously low abundances. Li, Be, and B have low abundances because production processes tend to bypass these elements, and they are destroyed by nucleon bombardment inside stars.

● Fe has an anomalously high abundance.

●Tc and Pm do not occur naturally in our solar system because all their isotopes are unstable and decay rapidly.

● Elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 (Bi) have no stable isotopes but occur naturally at low abundances.

●The lower abundances of heavier elements are caused by the sluggishness of

neutron capture reactions in normal stars.

●Nuclides with even numbers of protons and/or neutrons are more stable.

  (Oddo harkins's rule)

● Nucleons with paired spins have stronger nuclear binding affinities.

● Elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more

likely to capture another, increasing their atomic number.

● Elements with even atomic numbers have paired protons, enhancing the

stability of atoms.

● Hydrogen (1H) is a notable exception to the rule of even-numbered elements being more stable, as it is the most abundant element in the universe.

● The high abundance of Fe relative to its neighbors inside stars makes it a major constituent of planetary cores.

● The Earth's magnetic field is generated by the movement of molten iron and

nickel in the outer core.

● Iron is a ferromagnetic material, meaning it can be magnetized and retains its magnetic properties.

● Domes are convex upward but acidic and highly viscous. Laccoliths are basically convex upward whereas Lopoliths are generally convex downwards and having composition of basaltic.

● The most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust are O > Si > Al > Fe > Ca > Na >K > Mg > Ti.

● The most abundant elements in the Earth’s mantle are O>Mg>Si>Fe.

● The most abundant elements in the whole Earth are Fe > O > Si > Mg > Ni >Al > Ca.

● The most abundant major elements in seawater are Cl- > Na+ > SO4 2- >

Mg2+ > Ca2+ > K+ > HCO3 - > Br- > H3BO3 > Sr2+ > F-.

● The most abundant trace elements in seawater are Li > I > Mo > Zn > Fe > Al > Cu > Mn > Co > Pb > Hg > Au.

● The elements with the longest residence time in ocean water are Cl- > Na+ >Li+ > Sr2+ > K+ > Ca2+ > Zn2+ > Ba2+ > CO2+ > Cr > Al.

● The most abundant elements in freshwater are HCO3 - > CO3 2- > Ca2+ >

SiO2 > SO4 2- > Cl- > Na+ > Mg2+ > K+

● The most abundant elements in the atmosphere are N > O > Ar > other trace gases.

● The most abundant anthropogenic greenhouse gases are Water Vapour > CO2 > CH4 > N2O.

● The most abundant elements in the universe are H > He > O > C > 

Ne > Fe.

● Bulk Silicate Earth (BSE) is the chemical composition of the Earth's mantle

before the crust differentiated but after the metallic core separated. The BSE is also known as the primitive mantle.

● The silicate part of the Earth, including the crust and mantle, comprises 68% of the Earth's mass and 84 % of volume. (crust = 1 %)

● The metallic core makes up the remaining 32.5% of the Earth's mass.

● The transition zone in the Earth's mantle occurs at a depth of 410 km to 660 km.

- At 410 km depth, olivine transforms into Wadsleyite (β-Spinel).

- At 510 km depth, Wadsleyite transforms into Ringwoodite.

- At 660 km depth, Ringwoodite transforms into Perovskite.

● The Gilbert Geomagnetic Epoch lasted from 5.894 to 3.58 million years ago

and had a reversed magnetic field.

● The Gauss Geomagnetic Epoch lasted from 3.58 to 2.581 million years ago and had a normal magnetic field.

●The Matuyama Geomagnetic Epoch lasted from 2.581 to 0.78 million years ago and had a reversed magnetic field.

●The Brunhes Geomagnetic Epoch started 0.78 million years ago and continues to the present, with a normal magnetic field.

● Ridge pull force is a gravitational force that operates at oceanic ridges

.

● Slab pull force operates below the trench in the subduction zone. Slab pull force cannot initiate subduction but becomes dominant for continuous subduction once a slab begins to sink.

● Slab pull force occurs when olivine converts into spinel in the slab.

● Negative buoyancy force acts due to the positive density contrast between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

● The Conrad, Mohorovicic, Repetti, Gutenberg, and Lehman are discontinuities present within the Earth at 35 km, 100 km, 670km, 2900 km and 5150 km respectively.

● Pleochroism, relief, refractive index, Twinkling can be observed under plane-polarized light (PPL) in mineralogy.

● Interference color, interference figure, extinction and Twinning can be observed under cross-polarized light (XPL).

● Pigeonite is monoclinic, tourmaline is trigonal, beryl is hexagonal (normal

class), and pyrite is cubic.

● Quartz is uniaxial positive , shows conchoidal fracture and wavy or undulose extinction. 

● Nepheline and calcites are uniaxial negative.

● Olivine is the least resistant and most susceptible mineral to weathering, while quartz is the most resistant and least susceptible.

● Quartz transforms to tridymite and then cristobalite with increasing temperature, as they are high-temperature polymorphs of quartz.

●Coesite and stishovite are high-pressure polymorphs of quartz and Wollastonite is high tempearture polymorph.

●Quartz transforms to coesite and then stishovite with increasing pressure.

● Stishovite is typically formed during impact metamorphism having CN=6

● Inosilicates are chain silicates, Pyroxenes are single chain Inosilicates with Si:O = 1:3 whereas Amphiboles are double chain silicates with Si:O = 4:11

● Isomorphism is the phenomenon where two or more minerals have the same

crystal structure but different chemical compositions.

● Karanel faces are specific crystal faces found in some minerals.

● In a 100 section of a mineral, straight extinction is observed because the Z

vibration direction is parallel to the c-axis.

● In a 010 section, inclined extinction occurs because the Y vibration direction is perpendicular to the polarized light.

● The coordination number (CN) is 8 when the radius ratio lies between 0.732

and 1.

● The bond strength of a mineral is the ratio of the cation charge to the

coordination number.

● FCC has 4 atoms per unit cell, while BCC has 2 atoms per unit cell and Simple cubic has 1 atom per unit cell.

● The formula for the pyrosilicate group is Si2O7.

● The tetrahedral occupancy (Ae) of a mineral is the ratio of the number of

tetrahedral cations to the total number of tetrahedral sites.

● The octahedral occupancy of a mineral is the ratio of the number of octahedral cations to the total number of octahedral sites.

● The formula for critical refraction is sin(critical angle) = 1/refractive index.

● Bragg's Law states that nλ = 2d sinθ, where n is an integer, λ is the wavelength, d is the interplanar spacing, and θ is the angle of incidence.

● At the eutectic point in a phase diagram, graphic, granophyric, ophitic, and

myrmekite textures can be observed.

● Stocks are igneous intrusions with an areal extent less than 100 km², while

batholiths have an areal extent greater than 100 km².

● Komatiite is an ultramafic igneous rock containing olivine restricted to Archean time and shows Spinifex texture.

● Harzburgite contains olivine and orthopyroxene (OPX).

● Wehrlite contains olivine and clinopyroxene (CPX).

● Websterite contains OPX and CPX.

● Lherzolite contains olivine, OPX, and CPX.

● Kimberlites are ultramafic igneous rocks that are commonly found in mantle xenoliths rich in Olivine, Phlogopite associated with Diamonds.

● The calc-alkaline magma series is associated with convergent plate margins.

● Tholeiitic magma series is mainly associated with divergent plate margins but can found in both intraplate and other settings. 

- Thoelitic magmas are favoured by shallow melting

- High melt fraction at low pressure

- Silica saturated or oversaturated

Alkaline magma series is associated with backarc settings

- Favoured by deeper melting

- Low melt fraction at high pressure

- Silica undersaturated

The subalkaline magma is divided into two types - Tholeitic and Calc alkaline

● Intergranular texture occurs when the interstices between grains are filled with other grains and also called Mosaic texture.

● Intersertal texture occurs when the interstices are filled with glassy material.

● FOID (feldspathoid) minerals indicate silica undersaturation. Nepheline syenite is Plutonic equivalent of Phonolite.

● The presence of Di (diopside), Ab (albite), and En (enstatite) indicates silica

saturation. Feldspathoid and Olivine are Silica undersaturated, Quartz and Feldspar are Silica oversaturated whereas Pyroxenes and Amphiboles are Silica saturated.

● Normal zoning in plagioclase crystals occurs when the more calcic core is

surrounded by a more sodic rim.

● Reverse zoning occurs when the core is more sodic than the rim.

● Lava with higher viscosity leads to steeper slopes and a concave-upward profile, such as Mount Fuji in Japan is Composite volcano or strato volcano.

● Lava with lower viscosity leads to gentler slopes and a convex-upward profile, such as in Hawaii is Shield volcano.

● Domes are formed by silica-rich, viscous lava - Aa lava.

● Eutaxitic texture is characterized by parallel alignment of minerals.

● Perthite and antiperthite are exsolution textures formed due to limited solid

solution. If orthoclase is host it is Perthite and if Albite is host it is Anti-Perthite, both are formed due to exsolution- separation of homogenous material at lower temperature.

● Olivine is highly susceptible to weathering and Quartz is highly resistant to

weathering given by Bowen’s reaction series. Goldiech series is just opposite to it.

● Hortonorite is a mineral in olivine.

● Rhyolite and andesite are volcanic rocks of Granite and Diorite respectively.

● The phase rule for an isobaric system is P + F = C + 1, where P is the number of phases, F is the degrees of freedom, and C is the number of components.

● The distribution coefficient (Kd) is the ratio of the concentration of an element in the mineral phase to its concentration in the melt phase. 

- If kd<1 it is incompatible : preference is towards melt phase

- if kd>1 it is compatible : preference is towards solid phase

● Harzburgite contains forsterite (Mg-rich olivine). Harzburgite = Olivine+OPX, Wehrlite= Olivine+CPX, Websterite= OPX+CPX, Gabbro= Plagioclase+CPX , Norite= PLagioclase+OPX

● Kyanite is a mineral that forms at high pressure.

● Andalusite and sillimanite are minerals that form at lower pressures. Silimanite forms at higher temperature.

- Andalusite : Chiastolite cross

- Silimanite : Fibrolite (Acicular habit)

- Kyanite : Bladed habit and dual hardness

●At the triple point in a phase diagram, the degrees of freedom are zero.

●Lithostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the overlying rocks and is calculated as P = ρgh, where ρ is the density, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the depth.

● The molar fraction of a component in a mineral is the ratio of the number of

moles of that component to the total number of moles in the mineral.

No of moles = wt% / Molecular wt

● Migmatite is a rock that forms when a gneiss undergoes partial melting.

Generally consist of darker portion known as Melanosome and lighter portion known as Leucosome.

● Granoblastic texture is commonly observed in quartzite and marble.

● Quartzite is a metamorphic rock derived from sandstone.

● Marble is a metamorphic rock derived from limestone or dolostone.

● Geothermal gradients are higher at mid-ocean ridges (MOR) and lower in

subduction zones.

● Thermal metamorphism is characterized by high temperature and low pressure.

● Hornfels, granofels, skarn, and tektite are rocks formed during contact

metamorphism.

● Regional metamorphism involves both pressure and temperature as dominant factors.

● Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss are rocks formed during regional

metamorphism.

● Schistosity and gneissosity are foliation textures found in metamorphic rocks.

● Dynamic metamorphism is characterized by high pressure and low temperature and occurs under high-stress conditions.

● Mylonites and cataclasites are rocks formed during dynamic metamorphism

and formed due to ductile deformation.

● Hydrothermal metamorphism involves the interaction of rocks with hot,

chemically active fluids.

● Metasomatism is the process of chemical alteration of rocks by hydrothermal fluids.

● Leucosome and melanosome are contrasting layers found in migmatites.

Migmatite is a very high grade rock having characteristics of both igneous and Metamorphic origin formed due to partial melting.

● Compaction and dissolution are processes that can occur during diagenesis.

● Pre-kinematic, syn-kinematic, and post-kinematic refer to the timing of

deformation relative to metamorphism. In case of Post kinematic Si is continuos with Se.

● Grain size generally increases with increasing temperature during

metamorphism and decreases with increasing pressure.

● Grain size generally decreases with increasing pressure during metamorphism.

● Grain shape, chemical composition, and bulk composition can change during metasomatic metamorphism.

● Very low-grade, low-pressure regional, medium-pressure regional, and high-pressure/low-temperature (HP/LT) are different types of metamorphism.

● Chlorite, biotite, garnet, and staurolite are index minerals that indicate

increasing metamorphic grade.

● Paired metamorphic belts are associated with subduction zones.

- Subducting plate (high P and low T)

- Obducting plate ( low P and high T)

● The epizone, mesozone, and katazone are different depth zones in regional

metamorphism.

● Cataclastic rocks form in the epizone.

● Regional metamorphism with the formation of phyllites and schists occurs in the mesozone. 

- Regional occurs in wide scale or regional scale whereas 

- Contact and Fault zone metamorphism occurs in local or smaller scale.

● Plutonic rocks form in the katazone.

● Grain size generally increases with increasing metamorphic grade, for example, from slate to phyllite to schist to gneiss. Gneiss is a banded rock consisting of both dark and light colored minerals.

● Coarser-grained rocks are typically associated with higher metamorphic grades, Tempearature promotes recrystallization.

● Grossularite and diopside are minerals found in skarns.

● Striped gneiss is found in ductile shear zones.

● Relict (palimpsest) texture refers to remnant texture inherited from the original rock that has survived metamorphism.

● Nodular texture is formed due to the growth of oval-shaped porphyroblasts.

● Decussate texture shows a criss-cross structure and forms in minerals with

strong anisotropy of surface energy like mica, pyroxene, and hornblende.

● Symplectite texture is an intergrowth of two or more minerals formed

simultaneously.

● Moat texture occurs when the core mineral is completely surrounded by the rim mineral.

● Mortar texture occurs when porphyroclasts are surrounded by a matrix of fine- crushed material.

● Ribbon texture indicates elongated plastic deformation.

● Granoblastic texture is characterized by equidimensional crystals and forms

under isotropic stress conditions at high temperatures at angle 120.

● Skeletal texture is a web-like or spongy texture and is an extreme example of poiklioblast formation.

● For a pure substance like water, the chemical potential of the component is

equal to the chemical potential of the pure substance.

● The dissolution constant (K) is the product of the activities of the ions in a

solution.

● The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion

concentration.

● Geothermal gradient is the rate of increase in temperature with depth in the

Earth's crust. (Average - 25 C/km, Continetal crust - 30 C/km)

● The surface temperature of the Earth is about 20°C.

● Lithostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the overlying rocks.

● Gibbs free energy (G) is defined as G = H - TS, where H is enthalpy, T is

temperature, and S is entropy.

● The weight percent of a component in a mixture is the ratio of the weight of that component to the total weight of the mixture.

● Darcy's law states that the flow rate of a fluid through a porous medium is

proportional to the hydraulic gradient and the permeability of the medium.

● Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.

● The average atomic weight of an element is the weighted average of the atomic masses of its isotopes.

● The change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG) is calculated as ΔG = ΔH - TΔS, where ΔH is the change in enthalpy, T is the temperature, and ΔS is the change in entropy.

● The slope of a line is calculated as the change in y divided by the change in x.

● The average density of a rock is the weighted average of the densities of its

constituent minerals.

● The equilibrium constant (K) is a measure of the extent to which a reaction will proceed to completion.

● The change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG) is related to the equilibrium constant (K) by the equation ΔG = -RTlnK , where R is the gas constant and T is the

temperature.

● The average temperature at a certain depth can be calculated using the

geothermal gradient and the surface temperature.

● Velocity is lower near the channel bed due to friction with the substrate.

● The average velocity for flow in a river channel is typically calculated at

approximately 0.6 of the total depth.

● The minimum velocity is generally observed at the surface due to turbulence and friction.

● Velocity tends to be higher over steeper gradients.

● Oolites may become elongated in one direction due to tectonic forces.

● Festoon bedding is characterized by curved, trough-like shapes.

● Intercrystalline porosity refers to the voids or pores found between crystals that are formed through chemical processes.

● The uniformity coefficient is a measure of the degree of sorting of sediments i.e D60/D10.

● The Froude number (Fr) is a dimensionless number that relates the inertial

forces to the gravitational forces in a fluid.

● The refractive index (RI) of a material is the ratio of the speed of light in a

vacuum to the speed of light in that material.

● The void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids in a soil.

● Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of a soil.

● Specific weight (γ) is the weight per unit volume of a material.

● Bulk density (ρb) is the mass per unit volume of a soil.

● Particle density (ρs) is the mass per unit volume of the solid particles in a soil.

● The ripple symmetry index (RSI) is a measure of the asymmetry of ripples i.e stoss side divided by lee side whereas ripple index is ratio between Wavelength and height.

● The weighted average grain size is calculated by summing the product of the grain size and the weight fraction of each size class.

● The liquidity index (LI) is a measure of the consistency of a soil. 

- LI= (W- PL/PI)

- CI= LL-W/PI) 

- PI= LL-PL

● The sinuosity index is the ratio of the actual distance along a stream channel to the straight-line distance between the endpoints of the channel. Sinuosity is also termed as Turtuosity.

● Buckling is a type of deformation that occurs when layers are subjected to

parallel shortening.

● Bending occurs when layers are subjected to layer-perpendicular shortening.

● Boudinage is a type of deformation that occurs when layers are subjected to

layer-parallel extension. (Pinch and swale) - Mulion found between competent and incompetent layers.

- Buckling : layer parallel shortening

- Bending : layer perpendicular shortening

- Boudin : layer parallel extension

● The fold axis plunges in the direction of the dip of the axial surface.

● Antiforms are folds that close upward.

● Synforms are folds that close downward.

● Anticlines are folds in which older rocks are present at the core, and younger rocks are present at the periphery.

● Synclines are folds in which younger rocks are present at the core, and older rocks are present at the periphery. (Antiform and synform are classified based on closing direction , if closing upward then Antiform, downward- synform, Sidewise- Neutral or recumbent)

● Recumbent folds are overturned folds.

● Isoclinal folds are folds with parallel limbs. IA-0, 

gentle fold have interlimb angle of 180-130, 

Open fold - 130-70, 

Close fold - 70-30, 

Tight - 30-10,

Isoclinal- 0, 

Mushroom/Fan - less than 0)

● The vergence of a fold indicates the direction of overturning. (Overturned fold - one limb rotates more than 90, Cleavage and bedding are in same direction and bed dips more than cleavge)

● A normal fault is a fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall. (Contain both Horst and Graben) Detachment faults are low angle listric faults. Listric - Curved fault in which dip angle decreases downward, antilistric is the reverse where dip angle increases downward.

● A reverse fault is a fault in which the hanging wall moves up relative to the

footwall.

● A thrust fault is a low-angle reverse fault with angle <15

● A strike-slip fault is a fault in which the movement is horizontal. (Sinistral-

Anticlockwise-left lateral) (Dextral-Clockwise and right lateral) - Flower

structures found along with transpression- Compression and Transtension-

extension found.

● An oblique-slip fault is a fault in which the movement is both horizontal and vertical.

● The apparent dip of a plane is the angle between the plane and the horizontal, measured in a direction that is not perpendicular to the strike.

● The true dip of a plane is the angle between the plane and the horizontal,

measured in a direction that is perpendicular to the strike.

● The strike of a plane is the direction of the line of intersection of the plane with the horizontal. (Strike is the direction of the horizontal line)

● The pitch of a line is the angle between the line and the horizontal, measured in the plane of the line.

● The plunge of a line is the angle between the line and the horizontal, measured in a vertical plane.

● The rake of a line is the angle between the line and the strike of the plane that contains the line.

● The hade of a fault is the angle between the fault plane and the vertical-

complimentary angle of dip. Dip+Hade=90

● The throw of a fault is the vertical component of the displacement along the

fault.

● The heave of a fault is the horizontal component of the displacement along the fault.

● A topographic map shows the elevation of the land surface.

● The scale of a map is the ratio of the distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground. 

(Million map - 4 *4  , Scale: :1000000)-43, 

(Degree map - 1 *1  , Scale: 1:250000)-43A, 

(Degree quarter- 15’*15’, Scale:1:50000)-43D/4

● The contour interval is the difference in elevation between adjacent contour

lines. If contours are closer to each other :spacing is less - then steep slope , If

away from each other - gentle slope.

● A topographic profile is a cross-section of the land surface along a particular line.

● Differential stress is the difference between the maximum and minimum

principal stresses. (diameter)

● The quadratic elongation (Qs) is a measure of the degree of strain in a rock.

● The interlimb angle of a fold is the angle between the two limbs of the fold.

● The fold angle is the angle between the two limbs of a fold, measured in the

plane of the fold.

● True dip is always perpendicular to strike direction. Dip direction is always

towrds the direction of younger bed. In antiform limb dips away from each other and closing is towrds the direction of nose, whereas synform has opposite case.

● The strain ellipse is a graphical representation of the deformation of a rock.

Strain - change in shape without change in volume, 

Dilation- Change in volume without change in shape.

● The Mohr circle is a graphical representation of the state of stress at a point in a material. Normal stress in X-axis whereas Shear stress in Y-axis.

 (Differential stress is Diameter- (sigma1-sigma3)/2 , 

 (Devioteric stress is radius and Mean stress is the centre) , 

  Compressive stress is always positive whereas tensile stress

  is always negative.

● The effective stress is the difference between the total stress and the pore fluid pressure.

● The true thickness of a bed is the perpendicular distance between the top and bottom of the bed.

● The width of an outcrop is the distance across the outcrop, measured

perpendicular to the strike.(Apparent thickness is always greater than true

thickness). T = Wsin theta

● The dip of a bed is the angle between the bed and the horizontal.

● The slope of the ground surface is the angle between the ground surface and the horizontal. 

- if they are in the same direction then true thickness= WSin(Slope- Dip), 

- if they are in opposite direction then, true thickness= WSin(Slope+Dip)

● The pitch of a lineation is the angle between the lineation and the strike line and whereas plunge is the angle b/w horizontal and linear feature.

●The plunge of a lineation is the angle between the lineation and the horizontal,

measured in a vertical plane.48

●The intersection lineation is the line formed by the intersection of two planes.48

●Dichrodium is a Middle Gondwana flora. Vetrebratia is a root.

●Gondite-type deposits are found in rocks of the Lower Jurassic to Cretaceous

age.

●The Sargur Group is of the Archean age in Dharwar craton. Dharwar craton is

famous for Gold in Kolar abd Hutti Gold mine and also in Chitradurga.

●The Vindhyan Supergroup is of the Meso- to Neoproterozoic age famous for

Diamond in Rewa group in Panna shales. Limestone found only in Bhander and

Semri gp.

●Gondwana rocks range from the Upper Carboniferous to the Lower Cretaceous

and lower gondwana is famous for bituminous coal. Lignites are found in

Tertiary times in Nayevelli, Palana, Panandhro, Barmer

●Siwalik rocks range from the Miocene to the Pleistocene and famous for

mammalian fossils.

●Kepler's third law states that the square of the orbital period of a planet is

proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit, it obeys law of

conservation of energy.

●The dihedral angle is the angle between two planes.

●Alpha particles (α) are helium nuclei consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

●Beta particles (β) are high-energy electrons or positrons emitted from the

nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay.

●Lithostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the overlying rocks.●The refractive index (RI) is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the

speed of light in a medium.

●Half-life is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a radioactive sample to

decay. T1/2 = 0.693/lambda

●The quadratic elongation (Qs) is a measure of the degree of strain in a rock.

●The stretch (S) is a measure of the elongation of a rock. S= 1+e

●The cosine of the angle between two vectors is equal to the dot product of the

vectors divided by the product of their magnitudes.

●Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses

energy by emitting radiation and becomes stable.

●The tensile strength (σt) of a rock is the maximum stress it can withstand before

fracturing in tension.

●The point load index (Is) is a measure of the strength of a rock.5354

●The size correction factor (F) is used to adjust the point load index for the size

of the test specimen.

●The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction event is associated with an

iridium anomaly.

●Fossils are well-preserved in sea bottoms due to the lack of oxygen, away from

decomposing agent.

●Exogyra is an extinct fossil.

●Bragg's law is used to determine the spacing between crystal planes in a

material using X-ray diffraction.

●Total stress is the sum of the effective stress and the pore fluid pressure.56

●The storage coefficient (S) is a measure of the amount of water that can be

stored in or released from an aquifer.

●The bulk modulus of a material is a measure of its resistance to compression.57

●The bluntness ratio is the ratio of the radius of the small circle to the radius of

the great circle in a grain-size distribution curve.

●The horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Kh) is a measure of the ease with which

water can flow horizontally through a porous medium.

●The vertical hydraulic conductivity (Kv) is a measure of the ease with which

water can flow vertically through a porous medium.

●The tectonic stress (T) is the stress caused by tectonic forces.

●The normal stress (σn) is the stress acting perpendicular to a surface.

●The angle of internal friction (φ) is a measure of the resistance of a material to

shearing.

●Reserve is the amount of a mineral resource that can be economically extracted.

●Kerogen is an organic substance found in sedimentary rocks that is a precursor

to hydrocarbons

●The deposition and preservation of organic matter are the first steps in the

generation of hydrocarbons●High productivity areas are not necessarily areas of best preservation of organic

matter

●Rapid sedimentation rate and anaerobic bottom water conditions favor the

preservation of organic matter

●Under slow or interrupted sedimentation, complex organic substances are

readily broken down

●Rapid deposition buries organic matter below the reach of scavengers.61

●There is a positive correlation between sedimentation rate and the organic

carbon content of sediments

●The correlation between sedimentation rate and organic carbon content is less

clear at very high sedimentation rates due to dilution

●The preservation of organic matter is impossible in an oxygenated environment.

●Organic matter must not be subjected to prolonged exposure to the atmosphere,

aerated water, elemental sulfur, or igneous activity

●Even in aquatic environments, organic matter should not be transported,

reworked, or oxidized for long periods

●Aerobic decomposition of organic matter is efficient when the oxygen content

of water exceeds 1 mg/L

●Protore is the original, unaltered rock or mineral deposit with no immediate

economic value

●Eluvial placers are formed in situ by weathering without stream action

●Bauxite is formed by in situ chemical weathering

●Boehmite, gibbsite, and diaspore are minerals found in bauxite

●Lignite is found in the Lower Gondwana coal fields of India

●The Lower Gondwana coal fields are located in river valleys, such as the

Damodar Valley, Son-Mahanadi Valley, and Wardha-Godavari Valley

●The potassic zone, phyllic zone, and argillic zone are alteration zones

associated with porphyry copper deposits

●Chalcopyrite, bornite, and chalcocite are copper minerals

●Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from solid to gas without

passing through the liquid state

●Sublimation deposits are found near volcanoes, thermal springs, and fumaroles

●Sulfur deposits in Italy and Japan are examples of sublimation deposits

●Muscovite, biotite, phlogopite, lepidolite, zinnwaldite, roscoelite, and fuchsite

are types of mica

●Gypsum is used in the manufacture of cement and fertilizers

●Diamonds are found in conglomerate beds in Andhra Pradesh and Madhya

Pradesh, India

●Diamonds are also found in alluvial deposits in Madhya Pradesh and Orissa

●Magnesite is primarily found in Tamil Nadu, with smaller deposits in

Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh●The cut-off grade is the minimum concentration of metal in an ore that is

economically feasible to extract

●India is the largest producer of mica in the world

●Muscovite mica is associated with Archean rocks

●The Koderma Mica Belt in Bihar, the Nellore Mica Belt in Andhra Pradesh, and

the Rajasthan Mica Belt are the most important mica occurrences in India

●Ruby mica is a reddish variety of muscovite found in the Koderma Mica Belt.

●Mica is used as an insulating material

●Chromite is found in the Sukinda ultramafic belt in Odisha, and other deposits

occur in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

●Different types of chromite ores include massive, banded, disseminated,

ferruginous lateritic, powdery or friable, conglomeratic, and placer ores.

●The weighted average grade is the average grade of a mineral deposit, taking

into account the different grades and tonnages of ore.

●The uncorrected point load index (Is(50)) is a measure of the strength of a rock

sample.

●The size correction factor (F) is used to adjust the uncorrected point load index

for the size of the rock sample.

●The corrected point load index is obtained by multiplying the uncorrected point

load index by the size correction factor.

●The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum stress that a material can

withstand before it breaks under tension.

●Metal content is calculated by multiplying the volume, density, and assay value.

●The ultimate moisture content (UM) is the percentage of moisture in coal after

it has been air-dried.

●The length-weighted average grade is the average grade of a mineral deposit,

taking into account the lengths of the different ore intersections.

●Numerical aperture (NA) is a measure of the light-gathering ability of an optical

fiber.

●The bluntness ratio of a particle is the ratio of its short axis to its long axis.

●RMR (Rock Mass Rating) is a geomechanical classification system that is used

to assess the quality of rock masses.

●Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acids.

●Non-carbonate hardness is the hardness of water that is not caused by carbonate

minerals.

●Tritium (half-life 12.33 years) and carbon-14 (half-life 5730 years) are used to

date water.

●Tunnels are horizontal or near-horizontal underground excavations open to the

atmosphere at both ends.

●Shafts are vertical or near-vertical excavations open to the atmosphere at one

end.●Adits are horizontal or near-horizontal underground excavations open to the

atmosphere at one end.

●Inclines are inclined underground excavations open to the atmosphere at one

end.

●Winzes are vertical or inclined raises connecting two levels of a mine.

●Drifts are horizontal passageways or tunnels used for access, transportation, and

exploration.

●Raises are vertical or inclined excavations connecting different mine levels,

often used for ventilation or material transport.

●Crosscuts are horizontal tunnels intersecting a shaft or drift, used to access ore

bodies or create passageways.

●Stoping is excavating ore from underground workings, creating voids to extract

minerals.

●Declines are inclined tunnels providing access to underground workings,

typically connecting different mine levels.

●Well-sorted and well-rounded sand has high permeability due to consistent

pathways for water flow and reduced friction.

●Parapet walls on dams are built on both sides of the crest to prevent

overtopping, provide a safety barrier, improve aesthetics, and support walkways

or roadways.

●The zone of aeration in the subsurface has voids partially filled with air and

water, vertical water movement, and atmospheric pressure greater than

hydrostatic pressure.

●The zone of saturation has voids filled only with water, horizontal water

movement, and atmospheric pressure less than hydrostatic pressure.

●Spillways discharge excess water from dams to protect them from high floods,

while sluiceways are smaller and used to provide water to canals or clear silt.

●Volumetric water content is the ratio of the volume of water to the total volume

of a material.

●Water saturation is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids in a

material.

●The adsorption value is the amount of water adsorbed by a material.

●The soil adsorption ratio (SAR) is a measure of the suitability of water for

irrigation.

●Total hardness is a measure of the concentration of calcium and magnesium

ions in water.

●The specific yield is the ratio of the volume of water that can be drained from a

material by gravity to the total volume of the material.

●The point load index is a measure of the strength of a rock sample, and is

calculated using the failure load and the diameter of the core.●The liquidity index (LI) measures the water content of a soil relative to its

liquid and plastic limits.

●The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to predict

the flow regime of a fluid.

●The bulk volume is the total volume of a material, including the volume of

voids.

●The volume of water is the volume of water in a material.

●The volume of voids is the total volume of voids in a material.

●The porosity is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of a material.

●The volumetric water content is the ratio of the volume of water to the total

volume of a material.

●The degree of saturation is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of

voids in a material.

●Storage coefficient (S) is a measure of the amount of water an aquifer releases

or takes in for a unit change in hydraulic head.

●The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its density to the density of

water.

●Coequilibrium crystallization is a type of crystallization in which two or more

minerals crystallize from a melt at the same time.

●Fractional crystallization is a type of crystallization in which one mineral

crystallizes from a melt before another mineral.

●Dunite is an ultramafic igneous rock that is composed almost entirely of olivine.

●Forsterite is the magnesium-rich endmember of the olivine group.

●Fayalite is the iron-rich endmember of the olivine group.

●The molecular weight of a substance is the sum of the atomic weights of the

atoms in a molecule of the substance.

●Assay value is the concentration of a metal in an ore.

●The angular aperture of a lens is the angle between the two rays of light that

pass through the lens at the edges of the aperture.

●Acoustic impedance is a measure of the resistance of a material to the passage

of sound waves.

●The focal length of a lens is the distance from the lens to the point where

parallel rays of light converge after passing through the lens.

●The epicenter of an earthquake is the point on the Earth's surface directly above

the focus of the earthquake.

●Kepler's third law states that the square of the orbital period of a planet is

proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

●The tensile strength of a material is the maximum stress that the material can

withstand before it breaks under tension.

●The point load index is a measure of the strength of a rock sample.

●Basalt is a mafic extrusive igneous rock.●The strontium ratio (SR) is the ratio of the concentration of strontium-87 to the

concentration of strontium-86 in a sample.

●

Organic matter (OM) is any material derived from living organisms.

●Kerogen is a solid, insoluble organic matter in sedimentary rocks.

●Protore is an original, unaltered rock or mineral deposit that has no immediate

economic value but could become valuable after geological processes like

enrichment.

●Eluvial placers are formed in situ by weathering rocks without stream action.

●Alluvial placers are formed by the action of flowing water, typically in rivers or

streams.

●Bauxite is a type of sedimentary rock that is the principal ore of aluminum

formed due to insitu chemical weathering by residual process.

●Laterization is a weathering process that occurs in tropical and subtropical

climates.

●Boehmite, gibbsite, and diaspore are aluminum oxide hydroxide minerals found

in bauxite.

●Lignite is a brown coal, intermediate between peat and sub-bituminous coal in

the coalification process.

●The Cenozoic Era is the current and most recent era, covering the period from

66 million years ago to the present.

●Porphyry copper deposits are copper orebodies that are formed from

hydrothermal fluids that originate from a cooling magma chamber below and

occurs at shalow depth and found in orogenic settings like subduction zone.

●Chalcocite, covellite, and bornite are copper sulfide minerals.

●Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas

state, without passing through the liquid state.

●Sublimation deposits are formed when a substance is volatilized by heat and

subsequently redeposited in the same form at low temperature and pressure due

to sudden cooling of the vapors.

●Mica is a group of sheet silicate minerals.

●Muscovite, biotite, phlogopite, lepidolite, zinnwaldite, roscoelite, and fuchsite

are mica minerals.

●Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral that is used in the manufacture of plaster of

Paris, drywall, and cement.

●The Kurnool Group is a Proterozoic sedimentary group found in the Cuddapah

basin in southern India.

●The Vindhyan Supergroup is a large Proterozoic sedimentary sequence in

central India.

●The Kaimur Group is the uppermost of the four groups of the Vindhyan

Supergroup rich in sandstones and shales devoid of limestone●The Mahanadi River is a major river in east-central India.

●Magnesite is a carbonate mineral that is used in the production of magnesium

and its compounds.

●Cut-off grade refers to the minimum concentration of a metal within an ore

body that makes it economically feasible to extract the metal.

●The Archaean Eon is the oldest eon in the geologic timescale, extending from

4.0 to 2.5 billion years ago.

●Pegmatite is an intrusive igneous rock that is characterized by its very large

crystals.

●Chromite is a mineral that is the main source of chromium.

●The Sukinda Ultrabasic Belt is a chromite-bearing belt in Odisha, India.

●Laterite is a soil and rock type rich in iron and aluminum and is commonly

considered to have formed in hot and wet tropical areas.

●Massive ore is a type of ore in which the ore minerals are concentrated in a

large, solid mass.

●Banded ore is a type of ore in which the ore minerals are arranged in layers.

●Disseminated ore is a type of ore in which the ore minerals are scattered

throughout the host rock.

●Ferruginous lateritic ore is a type of laterite ore that is rich in iron.

●Powdery or friable ore is a type of ore that is easily crumbled.

●Conglomeratic ore is a type of ore that is composed of rounded fragments of ore

minerals that have been cemented together.

●Placer ore is a type of ore deposit that is formed by the weathering and erosion

of primary ore deposits.